The UK’s independent terrorism watchdog has warned that generative artificial intelligence (AI) will be exploited by terrorists, posing complex challenges for law enforcement and policymakers. In his sixth annual review, Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation Jonathan Hall KC said chatbot-driven radicalisation is emerging as the most difficult AI-related problem and called for consideration of a new race-hatred offence.
The 2023 review covers the operation of the Terrorism Acts 2000 and 2006 and the Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures Act 2011. It highlights seven potential harms from generative AI, ranging from propaganda production to operational support for attacks. Hall cautioned that existing laws may be insufficient to address all risks.
He also pointed to technological pressures on existing counter-terrorism powers, particularly the time required to examine increasingly high-capacity mobile devices under Schedule 7 port powers. Hall urged the government to start long-term planning for whether extended detention periods can be justified as devices grow in complexity.
Key incidents and threats
The October 7, 2023, Hamas attack on Israel and the ensuing conflict dominated the UK’s terrorism landscape, inspiring the terrorist murder of Terence Carney in Hartlepool by Moroccan national Ahmed Alid, and sparking a sharp rise in offences related to proscribed organisation support. Despite this, the UK’s overall threat level remained “substantial” throughout the year.
In total, 219 terrorism-related arrests were made in 2023, up from 167 in 2022. A record 42 children were arrested — a rise Hall linked to the growing role of the internet in radicalisation. While most arrests did not use the Terrorism Act’s 14-day pre-charge detention power, Hamas-related prosecutions drove a jump in charges tied to proscribed organisations.
The report notes the continued challenge of distinguishing terrorism from other forms of ideologically or grievance-motivated violence, citing cases such as the 2021 Liverpool Women’s Hospital bombing, where police concluded the attacker’s primary motive was linked to his asylum claim rather than terrorism ideology.
Proscription and humanitarian impact
Only one group — the Russia-linked Wagner Group — was proscribed in 2023. Hall reiterated concerns that proscription decisions can unintentionally stifle humanitarian aid in conflict zones, as seen in debates over whether to proscribe Yemen’s Houthis. He recommended greater use of the UK’s Tri-Sector Group — which brings together government, banks, and aid agencies — to shape reforms to the Terrorism Act that balance security with aid delivery.
Operational powers and biometrics
The report outlines extensive police powers under terrorism legislation, including broad search and seizure authority, stop-and-search without suspicion, and Schedule 7 port examinations. Hall reported that Schedule 7 use increased slightly to 2,737 examinations in 2023, with 62% leading to detention — a trend he attributed to “better targeting” but also to the complexity of modern devices.
He also examined emerging biometric technologies such as voice, gait, and emotional analysis, warning that AI could generate sensitive personal insights from seemingly innocuous data. Current legal protections for biometrics focus on fingerprints and DNA, leaving other identifiers less regulated. Hall did not recommend immediate legislative change but urged debate on whether protections should be expanded.
Mental health in counter-terrorism cases
The review discusses the newly permanent Counter Terrorism Clinical Consultancy Service, which embeds NHS mental health professionals within investigations. While Hall said the model can help divert vulnerable individuals away from prosecution, he acknowledged risks in blurring the line between health and security functions and called for continued safeguards.
Regional concerns
In Northern Ireland, the terrorism threat level was raised from “substantial” to “severe” in March 2023 following the shooting of Detective Chief Inspector John Caldwell. Hall expressed concern over persistent delays in terrorism trials in the region and urged a more energetic response.
Looking ahead
Hall’s recommendations include reviewing Schedule 7 in light of high-memory phones, exploring legislative or Code of Practice changes for device examinations, consulting the Tri-Sector Group on humanitarian safeguards, and collecting statistics on the use of new arrest powers for released terrorist offenders.
“Public trust cannot be taken for granted and must be continually earned,” Hall wrote, noting that while UK counter-terrorism agencies generally avoid heavy-handed application of the law, emerging technologies and shifting threats will test the resilience and adaptability of the terrorism framework.
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